Which term describes the link observed in observational research that describes a relationship but not necessarily causation?

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Association describes the relationship observed in observational research where two variables seem to move together, but one does not automatically cause the other. This distinction matters because, without random assignment, other explanations such as confounding factors or reverse causation could account for the link. For example, two variables might rise together because a third factor influences both, so the observed relationship isn’t evidence of causation. Establishing causation typically requires stronger study designs or methods that control for these other factors. The other terms convey different ideas: causation implies a cause-and-effect relationship; confounding refers to a third variable that distorts the link; and effect denotes the change produced by an exposure in a causal sense.