Observational studies often reveal associations but do not establish what?

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Observational studies can reveal that two variables are related, but they cannot prove causation because participants aren’t randomly assigned to exposure groups. This leaves room for confounding factors—other variables that influence both the exposure and the outcome—that can create a link that isn’t causal. Temporal order (the exposure preceding the outcome) is necessary for causation, but observing that order in observational data still doesn’t rule out alternative explanations. Significance tells us whether the association might be due to chance, not whether one thing causes another, so the best answer is causation.